Data and Computer Communications Chapter 18 – Internet Protocols

Data and Computer Communications Chapter 18 – Internet Protocols Eighth Edition by William Stallings Lecture slides by Lawrie Brown

Internet Protocols The map of the London Underground, which can be seen inside every train, has been called a model of its kind, a work of art. It presents the underground network as a geometric grid. The tube lines do not, of course, lie at right angles to one another like the streets of Manhattan. Nor do they branch off at acute angles or form perfect oblongs. —King Solomon's Carpet. Barbara Vine (Ruth Rendell)

Protocol Functions have a small set of functions that form basis of all protocols encapsulation fragmentation and reassembly connection control ordered delivery flow control error control addressing multiplexing transmission services

Encapsulation data usually transferred in blocks called Protocol Data Units (PDUs) have three categories of control address error-detecting code protocol control encapsulation is addition of control information to data have many examples of PDU’s in previous chapters e.g. TFTP, HDLC, frame relay, ATM, AAL5, LLC, IEEE 802.3, IEEE 802.11

Fragmentation and Reassembly protocol exchanges data between two entities lower-level protocols may need to break data up into smaller blocks, called fragmentation for various reasons network only accepts blocks of a certain size more efficient error control & smaller retransmission units fairer access to shared facilities smaller buffers disadvantages smaller buffers more interrupts & processing time

PDUS and Fragmentation

Connection Control have connectionless data transfer and connection-oriented data transfer where each PDU treated independently involves a logical association, or connection, established between entities preferred (even required) for lengthy data exchange or if protocol details are worked out dynamically three phases occur for connection-oriented connection establishment data transfer connection termination

Phases of Connection Oriented Transfer

Connection Establishment entities agree to exchange data typically, one station issues connection request may involve central authority receiving entity accepts or rejects (simple) may include negotiation syntax, semantics, and timing both entities must use same protocol may allow optional features must be agreed

Data Transfer and Termination both data and control information exchanged data flow and acknowledgements may be in one or both directions one side may send termination request or central authority might terminate

Sequencing used by many, but not all, connection-oriented protocols e.g. HDLC, IEEE 802.11 connection-oriented protocols include some way of identifying connection have PDUs numbered sequentially each side tracks seq numbers in and out to support three main functions ordered delivery flow control error control

Ordered Delivery risk PDUs may arrive out of order require PDU order must be maintained hence number PDUs sequentially easy to reorder received PDUs use finite sequence number field numbers repeat modulo maximum number max sequence number greater than max number of PDUs that could be outstanding

TCP/IP Concepts

Flow Control receiving entity limits amount / rate of data sent simplest protocol is stop-and-wait more efficient protocols use concept of credit amount of data sent without acknowledgment must be implemented in several protocols network traffic control buffer space application overflow

Error Control to guard against loss or damage implemented as separate error detection and retransmission functions can use an error-correction code sender inserts error-detecting code in PDU receiver checks code on incoming PDU if error, discard if transmitter doesn’t get acknowledgment in reasonable time, retransmit enables receiver to detect and possibly correct errors performed at various protocol layers

Addressing addressing level addressing scope connection identifiers addressing mode

Addressing Level level in architecture where entity is named have a unique address for each intermediate and end system usually a network-level address to route PDU e.g. IP address or internet address e.g. OSI - network service access point (NSAP) at destination data must routed to some process e.g. TCP/IP port e.g. OSI service access point (SAP)

Addressing Scope global address which identifies unique system need unique address for each interface on network unambiguous synonyms permitted system may have more than one global address global applicability enables internet to route data between any two systems MAC address on IEEE 802 network and ATM host address enables network to route data units through network only relevant for network-level addresses port or SAP above network level is unique within system

Connection Identifiers is used by both entities for future transmissions advantages: reduced overhead since smaller routing using a fixed route tagged by connection ID multiplexing of multiple connections use of state information

Addressing Mode address usually refers to single system individual or unicast address can refer to more than one system for multiple simultaneous recipients for data broadcast for all entities within domain multicast for specific subset of entities

Multiplexing multiple connections into single system e.g. frame relay, can have multiple data link connections terminating in single end system e.g. multiple TCP connections to given system upward multiplexing have multiple higher level connections over a single lower level connection downward multiplexing have single higher level connection built on multiple lower level connections

Transmission Services may have additional services to entities: priority on connection basis or message basis quality of service e.g. minimum throughput or maximum delay threshold security mechanisms, restricting access these depend on underlying transmission system and lower-level entities

Internetworking Terms communications Network internet the Internet intranet End System (ES) Intermediate System (IS) bridge router

Requirements of Internetworking link between networks routing and delivery of data between processes on different networks accounting services and status info independent of network architectures

Network Architecture Features addressing packet size access mechanism timeouts error recovery status reporting routing user access control connection based or connectionless

Architectural Approaches connection oriented virtual circuit connectionless datagram PDU’s routed independently from source ES to dest ES through routers and networks share common network layer protocol, e.g. IP below have network access on each node

Connectionless Internetworking advantages flexibility robust no unnecessary overhead unreliable not guaranteed delivery not guaranteed order of delivery packets can take different routes reliability is responsibility of next layer up (e.g. TCP)

IP Operation

Design Issues routing datagram lifetime fragmentation and re-assembly error control flow control

The Internet as a Network

Routing ES / routers maintain routing tables indicate next router to which datagram is sent static dynamic source routing source specifies route to be followed can be useful for security & priority route recording

Datagram Lifetime datagrams could loop indefinitely consumes resources transport protocol may need upper bound on lifetime of a datagram can mark datagram with lifetime Time To Live field in IP when lifetime expires, datagram discarded simplest is hop count or time count

Fragmentation and Re-assembly may have different packet sizes on networks along path used by datagram issue of when to re-assemble at destination packets get smaller as data traverses internet intermediate re-assembly need large buffers at routers buffers may fill with fragments all fragments must go through same router

IP Fragmentation IP re-assembles at destination only uses fields in header Data Unit Identifier (ID) identifies end system originated datagram Data length length of user data in octets Offset position of fragment of user data in original datagram in multiples of 64 bits (8 octets) More flag indicates that this is not the last fragment

Fragmentation Example

Dealing with Failure re-assembly may fail if some fragments get lost need to detect failure re-assembly time out assigned to first fragment to arrive if timeout expires before all fragments arrive, discard partial data use packet lifetime (time to live in IP) if time to live runs out, kill partial data

Error Control no guaranteed delivery router should attempt to inform source if packet discarded source may modify transmission strategy may inform high layer protocol need datagram identification see ICMP in next section

Flow Control allows routers and/or stations to limit rate of incoming data limited in connectionless systems send flow control packets to request reduced flow see ICMP in next section

Internet Protocol (IP) v4 IP version 4 defined in RFC 791 part of TCP/IP suite two parts specification of interface with a higher layer e.g. TCP specification of actual protocol format and mechanisms will (eventually) be replaced by IPv6

IP Services Primitives functions to be performed form of primitive implementation dependent Send - request transmission of data unit Deliver - notify user of arrival of data unit Parameters used to pass data and control info

IP Parameters source & destination addresses protocol type of Service identification don’t fragment indicator time to live data length option data user data

IP Options security source routing route recording stream identification timestamping

IPv4 Header

Header Fields (1) Version currently 4 IP v6 - see later Internet header length in 32 bit words including options DS/ECN (was type of service) total length of datagram, in octets

Header Fields (2) Identification sequence number identify datagram uniquely with addresses / protocol Flags More bit Don’t fragment Fragmentation offset Time to live Protocol Next higher layer to receive data field at destination

Header Fields (3) Header checksum reverified and recomputed at each router 16 bit ones complement sum of all 16 bit words in header set to zero during calculation Source address Destination address Options Padding to fill to multiple of 32 bits long

Data Field carries user data from next layer up integer multiple of 8 bits long (octet) max length of datagram (header plus data) is 65,535 octets

IPv4 Address Formats

IP Addresses - Class A start with binary 0 all 0 reserved 01111111 (127) reserved for loopback range 1.x.x.x to 126.x.x.x all allocated

IP Addresses - Class B start with binary 10 range 128.x.x.x to 191.x.x.x second octet also included in network address 214 16,384 class B addresses all allocated

IP Addresses - Class C start with binary 110 range 192.x.x.x to 223.x.x.x second and third octet also part of network address 221 2,097,152 addresses nearly all allocated see IPv6

Subnets and Subnet Masks allows arbitrary complexity of internetworked LANs within organization insulate overall internet from growth of network numbers and routing complexity site looks to rest of internet like single network each LAN assigned subnet number host portion of address partitioned into subnet number and host number local routers route within subnetted network subnet mask indicates which bits are subnet number and which are host number

Subnet Mask Calculation Binary Representation Dotted Decimal IP address 11000000.11100100.00010001.00111001 192.228.17.57 Subnet mask 11111111.11111111.11111111.11100000 255.255.255.224 Bitwise AND of address and mask (resultant network/subnet number) 11000000.11100100.00010001.00100000 192.228.17.32 Subnet number 11000000.11100100.00010001.001 1 Host number 00000000.00000000.00000000.00011001 25

Routing Using Subnets 00100000 01000000 01100000

ICMP Internet Control Message Protocol RFC 792 (get it and study it) transfer of (control) messages from routers and hosts to hosts feedback about problems e.g. time to live expired encapsulated in IP datagram hence not reliable

ICMP Message Formats

Common ICMP Messages destination unreachable time exceeded parameter problem source quench redirect echo & echo reply timestamp & timestamp reply address mask request & reply

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) need MAC address to send to LAN host manual included in network address use central directory use address resolution protocol ARP (RFC 826) provides dynamic IP to ethernet address mapping source broadcasts ARP request destination replies with ARP response

IP Versions IP v 1-3 defined and replaced IP v4 - current version IP v5 - streams protocol IP v6 - replacement for IP v4 during development it was called IPng (IP Next Generation)

Why Change IP? Address space exhaustion two level addressing (network and host) wastes space network addresses used even if not connected growth of networks and the Internet extended use of TCP/IP single address per host requirements for new types of service

IPv6 RFCs RFC 1752 - Recommendations for the IP Next Generation Protocol requirements PDU formats addressing, routing security issues RFC 2460 - overall specification RFC 2373 - addressing structure many others

IPv6 Enhancements expanded 128 bit address space improved option mechanism most not examined by intermediate routes dynamic address assignment increased addressing flexibility anycast & multicast support for resource allocation labeled packet flows

IPv6 PDU (Packet) Structure

IPv6 Header

IPv6 Flow Label related sequence of packets needing special handling identified by src & dest addr flow label router treats flow as sharing attributes may treat flows differently e.g. path, resource allocation, discard requirements, accounting, security buffer sizes, different forwarding precedence, different quality of service alternative to including all info in every header have requirements on flow label processing

IPv6 Addresses 128 bits long assigned to interface single interface may have multiple unicast addresses three types of addresses: unicast - single interface address anycast - one of a set of interface addresses multicast - all of a set of interfaces

IPv6 Extension Headers

Hop-by-Hop Options must be examined by every router if unknown discard/forward handling is specified next header header extension length options Pad1 PadN Jumbo payload Router alert

Fragmentation Header fragmentation only allowed at source no fragmentation at intermediate routers node must perform path discovery to find smallest MTU of intermediate networks set source fragments to match MTU otherwise limit to 1280 octets header includes fragment offset more fragments bit identification

Routing Header list of one or more intermediate nodes to visit header includes Next Header Header extension length Routing type Segments left Type 0 routing provides a list of addresses initial destination address is first on list current destination address is next on list final destination address will be last in list

Destination Options Header carries optional info for destination node format same as hop-by-hop header

Virtual Private Networks set of computers interconnected using an insecure network e.g. linking corporate LANs over Internet using encryption & special protocols to provide security to stop eavesdropping & unauthorized users proprietary solutions are problematical hence development of IPSec standard

IPSec RFC 1636 (1994) identified security need encryption & authentication to be IPv6 but designed also for use with current IPv4 applications needing security include: branch office connectivity remote access over Internet extranet & intranet connectivity for partners electronic commerce security

IPSec Scenario

IPSec Benefits provides strong security for external traffic resistant to bypass below transport layer hence transparent to applications can be transparent to end users can provide security for individual users if needed

IPSec Functions Authentication Header for authentication only Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP) for combined authentication/encryption a key exchange function manual or automated VPNs usually need combined function see chapter 21

Summary basic protocol functions internetworking principles connectionless internetworking IP IPv6 IPSec